Table 3 Risk factors of ALRTIs among children under five in SSA

Malnutrition

Malnutrition

[14, 44, 28, 43, 13, 48, 50]

Underweight

[22, 33]

Stunting

[33, 26]

Anaemia

[25]

Lack of breastfeeding/exclusive breastfeeding

[1, 14, 22, 36]

Children who did not receive vitamin A supplement

[29, 30, 25]

Household facilities

Poor ventilation/absence of windows

[1, 35, 48, 53]

House without separate kitchen

[1, 18]

Damp roof, mould growths on walls

[51]

Households with unclean water

[51]

Households with poor toilet facilities

[51]

Living in house with no chimney, eaves space,

[34]

Children in households with a low proportion of electricity

[31]

Lack of Immunisation

Failure to receive the second dose of the pentavalent vaccine

[46]

Unvaccinated children

[1]

Poor immunisation

[14]

Cooking

Inhouse cooking,

[32, 34, 47, 28]

Unclean fuel/stove or biomas

[14, 22, 43, 48]

Frequency of cooking

[34, 47]

Children who were held by their mothers while cooking

[35, 48]

Solid fuel for cooking,

[22, 53, 20, 27]

Cow dung fuel use,

[34, 50]

Smoking

Cigarette smoking,

[15, 14, 35, 50]

Exposure to wood smoke,

[15]

Socio demographic

Child born to women with no formal or primary education

[13-15, 22, 31, 31-33, 13, 50]

Children > 2 years

[6, 33, 47, 19, 16, 43, 25, 37, 26]

Children < 2 years

[16, 25, 37]

Rural residency

[6, 16, 43, 13]

Urban residency

[14, 31, 25]

Mothers who do not listen to or watch television

[32]

Younger maternal age < 20 years

[22, 16, 37]

Age of the mother/ caregiver > 35 years

[48]

Housewives/mothers with no occupation

[30, 48]

High order birth

[43]

Large family size (> 5)/crowded homes

[14, 18, 22, 19, 28, 53]

Poor households

[43, 13]

Hygienic practices

No hand washing,

[16, 38]

Cockroach infestation

[20]

Pre-existing conditions

History of diarrhoea

[31]

HIV infection

[15]

Climate issues

Changing climate

[45]

Higher indoor bacterial counts

[51]

Exposure to high concentrations of PM_2.5 is a risk factor

[21]

Pregnancy

Uterine irritability during pregnancy

[20]

physical exercise during pregnancy

[20]

Chemical exposure

The use of agro-chemicals is a risk factor

[24]