Table 3 Multivariable multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression analysis factors affecting under-5 overweight and/or obesity in SSA

Sex of the child

 Female

1

1

 Male

1.09 (1.02 – 1.15)

1.09 (1.02 – 1.25) **

Plurality of birth

 Single

1

1

 Multiple

0.84 (0.71 – 0.99)

0.84 (0.70 – 1.00)

Birth size

 Low birth weight

1

1

 Average birth weight

1.16 (1.06 – 1.28)

1.16 (1.05 – 1.28) **

 Larger than average

1.39 (1.26 – 1.53)

1.39 (1.26 – 1.54) ***

Child age in years

 Less than two years

1

1

 Two–three years

0.84 (0.76 – 0.94)

0.85 (0.76 – 0.94) ***

 Above three years

0.70 (0.63 – 0.78)

0.70 (0.63 – 0.78) ***

Exclusive breastfeeding

 Yes

1

1

 No

1.00 (0.91 – 1.10)

1.00 (0.91 – 1.11)

Preceding birth interval

  ≥ 24 months

1

1

 18 -23 months

0.94 (0.85 – 1.03)

0.94 (0.85 – 1.03)

  < 18 months

0.99 (0.87 – 1.12)

0.98 (0.87 – 1.12)

Age of the mother

 15—19 years

1

1

 20—34 years

0.80 (0.63 – 1.51)

0.79 (0.63 – 1.01)

  ≥ 35 years

0.81 (0.64 – 1.03)

0.81 (0.63 – 1.03)

Mother education

 No education

1

1

 Primary education

1.06 (0.97 – 1.15)

1.03 (0.95 – 1.08)

 Secondary and above

1.15 (1.03 – 1.28)

1.12 (1.01 – 1.25) *

Father education

 No education

1

1

 Primary education

1.02 (0.93 – 1.11)

0.99 (0.90 – 1.08)

 Secondary and above

1.09 (0.99 – 1.21)

1.07 (0.97 – 1.18)

Mother’s occupation

 Not working

1

1

 Working

0.95 (0.88 – 1.01)

0.94 (0.88 – 1.01)

Father occupation

 Not working

1

1

 Working

1.18 (0.99 – 1.39)

1.18 (0.99 – 1.39)

Family size

  < 4

1

1

  ≥ 4⁺

0.98 (0.92 – 1.05)

0.98 (0.91 – 1.05)

Wealth index

 Poor

1

1

 Middle

0.98 (0.90 – 1.06)

0.99 (0.91 – 1.08)

 Richer

1.02 (0.94 – 1.01)

1.06 (0.98 – 1.16)

Place of delivery

 Institutional

1

1

 Home

0.93 (0.86 – 0.99)

0.91 (0.85 – 1.08)

SSA Sub-region

 East Africa

1

1

 West Africa

0.70 (0.59 – 0.84)

0.67 (0.56 – 0.81) ***

 Central Africa

1.16 (0.95 – 1.42)

1.09 (0.88 – 1.35)

 South Africa

2.29 (1.59 – 3.29)

1.87 (1.09 – 3.21) *

Country income

 Upper middle income

1

1

 Lower middle income

0.97 (0.71 – 1.39)

1.04 (0.70 – 1.55)

 Low income

0.76 (0.56 – 1.04)

0.82 (0.56 – 1.21)

Residence

 Urban

1

1

 Rural

0.92 (0.87 – 0.97)

1.08 (0.99 1.18)

Random effects

 ICC%

 MOR (95%CI)

1.84

1.79

1.78

 PCV%

0.12

0.21

0.22

Model compression

 Log likelihood ratio

-19,383.98

-32,453.14

-19,360.77