Relationship between paternal psychological distress and involvement in childcare among fathers of preschool-aged children: mediating effect of maternal psychological distress

Table 2 Differences in fathers’ involvement in childcare by characteristics (N = 1541)

Characteristics	Categories	Involvement in childcare (quality)		Involvement in childcare (quantity)
Characteristics	Categories	M ± SD	t or F(p)	M ± SD	t or F(p)
Father
Education level	High school or less^a	13.99 ± 2.77	10.02 (<.001) a < b,c	2.32 ± 1.62	5.95 (.003) a < c
	College^b	14.48 ± 2.63		2.50 ± 1.63
	University or higher^c	14.69 ± 2.53		2.65 ± 1.61
Religion	No	14.33 ± 2.62	−2.48 (.013)	2.41 ± 1.51	−3.55 (<.001)
Religion	Yes	14.67 ± 2.64	−2.48 (.013)	2.72 ± 1.76	−3.55 (<.001)
Smoking	Non-smoker	14.76 ± 2.50	4.38 (<.001)	2.72 ± 1.67	4.56 (<.001)
Smoking	Smoker	14.17 ± 2.73	4.38 (<.001)	2.34 ± 1.55	4.56 (<.001)
Alcohol consumption	More than once a week	14.30 ± 2.75	−1.39 (.165)	2.39 ± 1.55	−2.07 (.038)
Alcohol consumption	Less than once a week	14.51 ± 2.54	−1.39 (.165)	2.57 ± 1.59	−2.07 (.038)
Child
Sex	Male	14.40 ± 2.66	−0.10 (.344)	2.58 ± 1.74	1.15 (.250)
Sex	Female	14.52 ± 2.61	−0.10 (.344)	2.48 ± 1.49	1.15 (.250)
Family
Household income	I (lowest)^a	14.20 ± 2.74	3.00 (.030) a < d	2.46 ± 1.79	1.56 (.209)
	II^b	14.39 ± 2.57		2.48 ± 1.57
	III^c	14.47 ± 2.65		2.53 ± 1.45
	IV (highest)^d	14.78 ± 2.59		2.70 ± 1.71

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