Table 1 Characteristics of the study participants included in the analysis by the individual- and community-level characteristics, EDHS (2005–2016, n = 23,756)

Individual-level characteristics

 Child factors

  Sex

Male

12,141

51.1

Female

11,616

48.9

  Age (months)

 < 6

2,470

10.4

6–11

2,515

10.6

12–23

4,524

19.0

24–35

4,489

18.9

36–59

9,758

41.1

  Birth order

First born

4,228

17.8

2–4

10,324

43.5

5 or higher

9,204

38.7

  Birth interval

< 33 months

16,550

69.7

≥ 33 months

7,206

30.3

  Size of child at birth

Larger

7,478

31.6

Average

9,593

40.5

Small

6,601

27.9

  Currently breastfeeding

Yes

17,421

73.3

No

6,335

26.7

  Received measles (n = 19,543)

Yes

8,174

41.8

No

11,369

58.2

  Full vaccination (n = 19,226)

Yes

4,216

21.9

No

15,010

78.1

  Diarrhea (n = 23,722)

Yes

3,319

14.0

No

20,403

86.0

  Fever

Yes

3,965

16.7

No

19,751

83.3

  Children received deworming medication

Yes

2,985

14.0

No

18,301

86.0

 Parental factors

  Mother's age

< 18

175

0.7

18–24

5,329

22.4

25–34

12,359

52.0

≥ 35

5,893

24.8

  Mother's education

No education

16,469

69.3

Primary

6,064

25.5

Secondary

851

3.6

Higher

373

1.6

  Mother's occupation (n = 23,657)

Not working

12,744

53.9

Non agriculture

5,179

21.9

Agriculture

5,733

24.2

  Antenatal care (ANC) visit

None

8,282

50.8

1–3

4,171

25.6

4–7

3,474

21.3

8 + 

362

2.2

  Maternal BMI (kg/m²)

< 18.5

4,774

20.2

18.5 to 24.9

17,629

74.8

25 + 

1,181

5.0

  Any anemia

Yes

5,757

24.9

No

17,393

75.1

  Maternal stature (n = 23,598)^a

Normal

512

2.2

Short

8,245

34.9

Very short

14,840

62.9

  Listening to radio

Yes

9,060

38.2

Not at all

14,689

61.8

  Watching television

Yes

5,324

22.4

Not at all

18,416

77.6

 Household factors

  Wealth index

Poor

10,762

45.3

Middle

4,964

20.9

Rich

8,030

33.8

  Household size

1–4

5,642

23.7

 ≥ 5

18,114

76.3

  Type of cooking fuel

Clean fuels

405

1.7

Solid fuels

22,873

98.3

  Toilet facility

Improved

2,417

10.3

Unimproved

21,004

89.7

  Source of drinking water

Improved

10,681

45.6

Unimproved

12,734

54.4

  Household flooring

Improved

2,214

9.3

Unimproved

21,535

90.7

  Time to get a water source

On-premise

1,752

7.4

≤ 30 min

13,241

55.7

31–60 min

5,021

21.1

> 60 min

3,742

15.8

 Community-level characteristics

  Residence

Urban

2,618

11.0

Rural

21,138

89.0

  Region^b

Large central

21,789

91.7

Small peripherals

1,384

5.8

Metropolis

584

2.5

  Ecological zone

Tropical zone

3,580

15.1

Subtropical zone

16,703

70.3

Cool zone

3,473

14.6

  Survey year

EDHS-2005

4,289

18.1

EDHS-2011

9,987

42.0

EDHS-2016

9,479

39.9