Table 3 Multivariable analysis of U5M and associated factors in Zambia, using the recent three ZDHS surveys

Maternal Factors

Maternal age

 15–19

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 20–24

0.71 (0.46,1.09)

0.63 (0.41,0.96)*

1.00 (0.59,1.69)

0.74 (0.56,0.96)*

 25–29

0.66 (0.42,1.05)

0.61 (0.37,1.02)

0.60 (0.29,1.23)

0.61 (0.44,0.84)**

 30–34

0.65 (0.35,1.22)

0.71 (0.40,1.24)

0.60 (0.26,1.36)

0.63 (0.43,0.92)*

 35–39

0.95 (0.47,1.91)

0.86 (0.46,1.64)

0.68 (0.25,1.88)

0.79 (0.51,1.23)

 40–49

1.16 (0.57,2.35)

1.01 (0.53,1.92)

1.05 (0.41,2.70)

0.99 (0.64,1.54)

Marital status

 Married

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Not married

⁋

⁋

1.48 (0.91,2.41)

⁋

Maternal education

 No education

0.96 (0.63,1.45)

1.05 (0.73,1.50)

0.92 (0.58,1.48)

0.99 (0.78,1.25)

 Primary

1.12 (0.85,1.47)

0.94 (0.71,1.24)

1.01 (0.65,1.52)

0.99 (0.82,1.20)

 Secondary & higher

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

Maternal occupation

 Not working

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Working

⁋

1.01 (0.81,1.25)

⁋

⁋

Wealth index

 Poorest

0.76 (0.45,1.28)

1.25 (0.73,2.16)

0.60 (0.32,1.11)

0.77 (0.58,1.04)

 Poorer

0.86 (0.49,1.48)

1.15 (0.68,1.96)

0.53 (0.30,0.94)

0.73 (0.55,0.98)*

 Middle

0.91 (0.56,1.45)

1.17 (0.73,1.87)

0.68 (0.38,1.22)

0.81 (0.62,1.07)

 Richer

1.17 (0.85,1.62)

1.42 (0.89,2.27)

1.06 (0.65,1.73)

1.17 (0.91,1.49)

 Richest

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

Place of residence

 Urban

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Rural

0.83 (0.58,1.20)

0.81 (062,1.05)

0.88 (0.59,1.31)

0.79 (0.67,0.93)**

ANC visits

 Had at least one ANC visits

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 No ANC

2.33 (1.94,2.81)***

3.50 (2.80,4.38)***

4.13 (2.92,5.83)***

3.17 (2.74,3.67)***

Timing of the first ANC visit

 <  12 weeks

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 >  12 weeks

1.14 (0.80,1.61)

0.94 (0.70,1.27)

0.81 (0.59,1.12)

0.96 (0.80,1.15)

Place of delivery

 Institutional delivery

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Home delivery

1.00 (0.77,1.30)

1.13 (0.90,1.41)

1.08 (0.78,1.49)

1.08 (0.92,1.24)

Child Characteristics

Birth type

 Singleton

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Multiple birth

2.65 (1.73,4.06)***

2.66 (1.78,3.99)***

2.06 (1.32,3.21)**

2.54 (1.98,3.25)***

Size of child at birth

 Average

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 < average

1.66 (1.25,2.20)***

1.90 (1.48,2.45)***

1.86 (1.38,2.50)***

1.78 (1.52,2.09)***

 > average

0.96 (0.74,1.23)

1.09 (0.84,1.40)

1.07 (0.79,1.46)

1.04 (0.89,1.21)

Child sex

 Male

1.26 (1.02,1.56)*

1.24 (1.01,1.51)*

1.35 (1.05,1.73)*

1.28 (1.23,1.46)***

 Female

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

Birth order

 First

1.30 (0.80,2.11)

1.45 (0.93,2.25)

0.79 (0.39,1.62)

1.17 (0.84,1.64)

 Second−third

1.31 (0.91,1.88)

1.25 (0.92,1.69)

1.01 (0.64,1.59)

1.17 (0.94,1.45)

 Fourth & above

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

Regional factors

Regions

 Central

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Copperbelt

0.79 (0.53,1.18)

1.40 (0.86,2.28)

0.71 (0.39,1.27)

0.99 (0.73,1.33)

 Eastern

1.56 (1.04,2.32)

1.88 (1.21,2.92)**

1.05 (0.63,1.76)

1.52 (1.16,1.98)**

 Luapula

1.11 (0.70,1.76)

1.52 (0.91,2.55)

1.91 (1.20,3.05)**

1.50 (1.13,1.99)**

 Lusaka

1.20 (0.78,1.86)

1.27 (0.78,2.06)

1.25 (0.72,2.15)

1.24 (0.93,1.65)

 Northern

1.40 (0.96,2.05)

1.11 (0.67,1.82)

1.39 (0.81,2.38)

1.12 (0.83,1.50)

 North-western

0.88 (0.58,1.32)

0.98 (0.60,1.60)

0.70 (0.35,1.42)

0.99 (0.73,1.33)

 Southern

1.08 (0.69,1.69)

1.09 (0.69,1.71)

1.09 (0.62,1.92)

1.12 (0.83,1.50)

 Western

1.24 (0.79,1.94)

0.94 (0.56,1.56)

1.05 (0.59,1.86)

0.99 (0.72,1.38)

 Muchinga

–

1.27 (0.80,2.02)

1.70 (0.95,3.04)

1.43 (1.09,1.87)**