Type | Details |
---|---|
Idiopathic | No known cause |
Exposure to exogenous estrogens | • Dermal and hair preparations (e.g. lavender and tea tree oils) |
• Milk and meat of cows treated with estrogens | |
Illness | • Liver disease (e.g. cirrhosis) |
• Renal failure | |
• Thyrotoxicosis | |
• Malnutrition | |
Neoplasia | • Adrenal |
• Testicular | |
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia | • (Late-onset) 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD) |
• 11-beta-hydroxylase deficiency | |
• Overexpression of aromatase | |
Other hormonal aberrations | • Androgen deficiency (e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia) |
• Androgen insensitivity | |
• Extraglandular aromatization of androstenedione (e.g. aromatase excess syndrome (AES), obesity) | |
Medication | • Anti-androgens (e.g. bicalutamide, flutamide, finasteride, spironolactone) |
• Antimicrobials (e.g. antiretrovirals, isoniazid, ketoconazole, metronidazole, penicillamine) | |
• Antineoplastic and immunomodulators (e.g. alkylating agents, bleomycin, cisplatin, cyclosporine, methotrexate, vincristine) | |
• Gastrointestinal agents (e.g. cimetidine, metoclopramide, omeprazole, ranitidine) | |
• Cardiovascular (e.g. amiodarone, amlodipine, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, digitoxin, fibrates, reserpine, spironolactone, statins) | |
• Hormones (e.g. androgens, chorionic gonadotropin, estrogens, GnRH agonist, GH) | |
• Neurologic/psychiatric (e.g. haloperidol, methylphenidate, opioids, risperidone, TCAs) | |
• Drugs of abuse (e.g. alcohol, amphetamines, heroin, marijuana, methadone) |